diff --git a/.changeset/bounded-model-catalog-refresh.md b/.changeset/bounded-model-catalog-refresh.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10e6342
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.changeset/bounded-model-catalog-refresh.md
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+---
+"@jmfederico/pi-web": patch
+---
+
+Fix multi-minute stalls when opening the model selector, starting sessions, or using the auth dialogs. Provider model catalogs are no longer fetched on request paths: the session daemon now refreshes them in the background on a bounded schedule — shortly after startup and hourly, plus immediately after a provider login or logout — with a per-run timeout and a single retry, keeping the stored catalogs when a provider fails. Setting `PI_WEB_OFFLINE` or `PI_OFFLINE` disables these background refreshes entirely. See the configuration reference for details.
diff --git a/docs/config.html b/docs/config.html
index f814d69..2c327da 100644
--- a/docs/config.html
+++ b/docs/config.html
@@ -100,6 +100,7 @@
             <a href="#manual-uploads">Manual uploads</a>
             <a href="#agent-runtime">Agent profile and companion CLI</a>
             <a href="#pi-extension-provider-baseline">Pi extension providers</a>
+            <a href="#catalog-refresh">Model catalog refresh</a>
             <a href="#session-tools">Session tools</a>
             <a href="#completion-tools">Completion tools</a>
           </aside>
@@ -479,6 +480,17 @@
                       <td>Not supported locally</td>
                       <td>Restart web/API after env changes</td>
                     </tr>
+                    <tr>
+                      <td>Offline mode</td>
+                      <td>—</td>
+                      <td><code>PI_WEB_OFFLINE</code>, <code>PI_OFFLINE</code></td>
+                      <td>Web/API + session daemon env</td>
+                      <td>Not supported locally</td>
+                      <td>
+                        Restart session daemon and web/API after env changes; also disables the
+                        <a href="#catalog-refresh">background model catalog refresh</a>
+                      </td>
+                    </tr>
                   </tbody>
                 </table>
               </div>
@@ -642,6 +654,45 @@
               </div>
             </section>
 
+            <section id="catalog-refresh">
+              <h2>Background model catalog refresh</h2>
+              <p>
+                PI WEB shares one model runtime across all sessions, and provider model catalogs are refreshed over the
+                network only on the session daemon's own background schedule. Nothing a browser or API request triggers
+                waits on a provider catalog fetch, so a slow or unreachable provider cannot stall opening the model
+                selector, starting a session, or the auth dialogs.
+              </p>
+              <p>The session daemon runs the refresh:</p>
+              <ul>
+                <li>
+                  <strong>15 seconds after the daemon starts</strong>, then <strong>hourly</strong>. Pi treats stored
+                  catalogs as fresh for four hours, so most hourly ticks make no network request at all; the shorter tick
+                  only makes sure a due refresh is not delayed to the next tick.
+                </li>
+                <li>
+                  <strong>Immediately after a provider login or logout</strong>, bypassing that freshness window, because
+                  the cached catalog is known to be wrong.
+                </li>
+              </ul>
+              <p>
+                Each run is bounded: it is aborted after <strong>60 seconds</strong>, and a run that times out or fails
+                earns <strong>one retry after five minutes</strong>. Failures never clear the stored catalogs — the last
+                successfully fetched models stay in use and the daemon log records what failed. A refresh in flight is
+                also aborted when the daemon shuts down.
+              </p>
+              <p>
+                Models fetched by a background refresh appear the next time a client asks for the model list, so a model
+                selector left open across a refresh may need to be reopened.
+              </p>
+              <p>
+                To turn the background refresh off entirely, set <code>PI_WEB_OFFLINE</code> or <code>PI_OFFLINE</code> in
+                the session daemon's environment and restart it. In offline mode PI WEB performs no provider catalog
+                network requests, including after logins, and sessions use the catalogs already stored in the agent
+                profile. The <code>PI_WEB_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK</code> and <code>PI_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK</code> keys do
+                <strong>not</strong> affect this refresh; they only suppress PI WEB release checks.
+              </p>
+            </section>
+
             <section id="session-tools">
               <h2>Session daemon tools</h2>
               <h3><code>spawnSessions</code></h3>
diff --git a/docs/config.md b/docs/config.md
index 90b9d85..efc68d1 100644
--- a/docs/config.md
+++ b/docs/config.md
@@ -131,6 +131,7 @@ Rows with JSON key `—` are runtime-only environment variables, not config-file
 | Agent profile session storage directory | — | `PI_WEB_AGENT_SESSION_DIR` (`PI_CODING_AGENT_SESSION_DIR` for Pi compatibility) | Session daemon env | Not supported locally | Restart session daemon; env-only session storage override |
 | Agent profile state directory | — | `PI_WEB_AGENT_DIR` (`PI_CODING_AGENT_DIR` for Pi compatibility) | Web/API + session daemon env | Not supported locally | Restart services |
 | Skip update checks | — | `PI_WEB_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK`, `PI_WEB_OFFLINE`, `PI_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK`, `PI_OFFLINE` | Web/API env | Not supported locally | Restart web/API after env changes |
+| Offline mode | — | `PI_WEB_OFFLINE`, `PI_OFFLINE` | Web/API + session daemon env | Not supported locally | Restart session daemon and web/API after env changes; also disables the [background model catalog refresh](#background-model-catalog-refresh) |
 
 ## Key details
 
@@ -218,6 +219,21 @@ Ignored mutations are written to the session-daemon log once per operation and p
 
 Configure providers before the daemon starts: use the active agent directory's `models.json`, or install the Pi extension globally in that agent profile. Project Pi extensions and project-level `models.json` files cannot add providers to PI WEB's shared baseline. After updating PI WEB—or after installing, removing, or updating a global Pi extension that registers providers—manually restart `pi-web-sessiond.service` (`systemctl --user restart pi-web-sessiond`). Restarting only the web/API service and running `/reload` do not rebuild the baseline.
 
+### Background model catalog refresh
+
+PI WEB shares one model runtime across all sessions, and provider model catalogs are refreshed over the network only on the session daemon's own background schedule. Nothing a browser or API request triggers waits on a provider catalog fetch, so a slow or unreachable provider cannot stall opening the model selector, starting a session, or the auth dialogs.
+
+The session daemon runs the refresh:
+
+- **15 seconds after the daemon starts**, then **hourly**. Pi treats stored catalogs as fresh for four hours, so most hourly ticks make no network request at all; the shorter tick only makes sure a due refresh is not delayed to the next tick.
+- **Immediately after a provider login or logout**, bypassing that freshness window, because the cached catalog is known to be wrong.
+
+Each run is bounded: it is aborted after **60 seconds**, and a run that times out or fails earns **one retry after five minutes**. Failures never clear the stored catalogs — the last successfully fetched models stay in use and the daemon log records what failed. A refresh in flight is also aborted when the daemon shuts down.
+
+Models fetched by a background refresh appear the next time a client asks for the model list, so a model selector left open across a refresh may need to be reopened.
+
+To turn the background refresh off entirely, set `PI_WEB_OFFLINE` or `PI_OFFLINE` in the session daemon's environment and restart it. In offline mode PI WEB performs no provider catalog network requests, including after logins, and sessions use the catalogs already stored in the agent profile. The `PI_WEB_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK` and `PI_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK` keys do **not** affect this refresh; they only suppress PI WEB release checks.
+
 ### Session daemon tools
 
 `spawnSessions` controls whether agents receive the `spawn_session` tool. It defaults to `true`; set it to `false` if you do not want an agent to start independent PI WEB sessions.
diff --git a/src/config.test.ts b/src/config.test.ts
index be5c0d1..b2ae4cf 100644
--- a/src/config.test.ts
+++ b/src/config.test.ts
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ import { mkdtemp, readFile, rm, writeFile } from "node:fs/promises";
 import { join } from "node:path";
 import { tmpdir } from "node:os";
 import { afterEach, beforeEach, describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
-import { DEFAULT_MAX_UPLOAD_BYTES, DEFAULT_UPLOADS_FOLDER, agentDirEnvSource, agentSessionDirEnvKeys, effectiveAgentConfig, effectivePiWebConfig, hasAgentDirEnvOverride, hasAgentSessionDirEnvOverride, loadPiWebConfig, maxUploadBytes, savePiWebConfig, spawnSessionsEnabled, subsessionsEnabled } from "./config.js";
+import { DEFAULT_MAX_UPLOAD_BYTES, DEFAULT_UPLOADS_FOLDER, agentDirEnvSource, agentSessionDirEnvKeys, effectiveAgentConfig, effectivePiWebConfig, hasAgentDirEnvOverride, hasAgentSessionDirEnvOverride, loadPiWebConfig, maxUploadBytes, offlineModeEnabled, savePiWebConfig, spawnSessionsEnabled, subsessionsEnabled } from "./config.js";
 
 let tempDir: string;
 let configPath: string;
@@ -233,6 +233,25 @@ describe("subsessionsEnabled", () => {
   });
 });
 
+describe("offlineModeEnabled", () => {
+  it("is off when no offline env var is set", () => {
+    expect(offlineModeEnabled({})).toBe(false);
+  });
+
+  it("treats an empty value as unset", () => {
+    expect(offlineModeEnabled({ PI_OFFLINE: "", PI_WEB_OFFLINE: "" })).toBe(false);
+  });
+
+  it("is on when either offline key has a value", () => {
+    expect(offlineModeEnabled({ PI_OFFLINE: "1" })).toBe(true);
+    expect(offlineModeEnabled({ PI_WEB_OFFLINE: "anything" })).toBe(true);
+  });
+
+  it("ignores the narrower skip-version-check keys", () => {
+    expect(offlineModeEnabled({ PI_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK: "1", PI_WEB_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK: "1" })).toBe(false);
+  });
+});
+
 function testOptions(): { env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv } {
   return { env: { PI_WEB_CONFIG: configPath } };
 }
diff --git a/src/config.ts b/src/config.ts
index 8ad0920..5f766b5 100644
--- a/src/config.ts
+++ b/src/config.ts
@@ -266,6 +266,21 @@ export function subsessionsEnabled(env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv = process.env, config:
   return config.subsessions ?? false;
 }
 
+const OFFLINE_ENV_KEYS = ["PI_WEB_OFFLINE", "PI_OFFLINE"] as const;
+
+/**
+ * Whether the operator asked PI WEB (or pi itself) to stay offline, meaning
+ * background network access must be skipped. Matches the "set and non-empty"
+ * semantics used for the other runtime-only env switches.
+ *
+ * Deliberately narrower than `piWebStatus`'s update-check suppression: the
+ * `*_SKIP_VERSION_CHECK` keys only silence release lookups, while these keys ask
+ * for no background network at all.
+ */
+export function offlineModeEnabled(env: NodeJS.ProcessEnv = process.env): boolean {
+  return OFFLINE_ENV_KEYS.some((key) => isEnvSet(env[key]));
+}
+
 function parseString(value: unknown, key: string, path: string): string {
   if (typeof value !== "string" || value === "") throw new Error(`PI WEB config ${key} must be a non-empty string: ${path}`);
   return value;
diff --git a/src/server/sessiond.ts b/src/server/sessiond.ts
index 8703dba..fe4fb44 100644
--- a/src/server/sessiond.ts
+++ b/src/server/sessiond.ts
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@ import { SessionEventHub } from "./realtime/sessionEventHub.js";
 import { AuthService } from "./sessions/authService.js";
 import { bootstrapAndFreezeGlobalExtensionProviders } from "./sessions/globalProviderPolicy.js";
 import { registerAuthRoutes } from "./sessions/authRoutes.js";
+import { ModelCatalogRefresher } from "./sessions/modelCatalogRefresher.js";
 import { PiSessionService } from "./sessions/piSessionService.js";
 import { createPiSessionManagerGateway } from "./sessions/piSessionManagerGateway.js";
 import { registerSessionRoutes } from "./sessions/sessionRoutes.js";
@@ -23,7 +24,7 @@ import { TerminalService } from "./terminals/terminalService.js";
 import { registerTerminalRoutes } from "./terminals/terminalRoutes.js";
 import { getPiWebRuntimeComponent } from "./piWebStatus.js";
 import { SESSIOND_RUNTIME_CAPABILITIES } from "../shared/capabilities.js";
-import { agentSessionDirEnvKeys, effectivePiWebConfig, maxUploadBytes } from "../config.js";
+import { agentSessionDirEnvKeys, effectivePiWebConfig, maxUploadBytes, offlineModeEnabled } from "../config.js";
 import { createActiveAgentProfileDescriptor } from "../sessiond/activeAgentProfile.js";
 import { runSessionDaemonStartup } from "./sessiond/sessionDaemonStartup.js";
 
@@ -55,6 +56,17 @@ await runSessionDaemonStartup({
     // still mutable, then freeze every later extension-provider mutation before
     // any real session can load project resources.
     await bootstrapAndFreezeGlobalExtensionProviders(auth.runtime, activeAgentProfile.dir, app.log);
+    // The shared model runtime is constructed offline so request paths never
+    // wait on provider-catalog fetches; this is the single bounded network
+    // refresher, and auth changes (login/logout) ask it for a prompt run. It
+    // stays fully inert when the operator asked for offline behavior.
+    const catalogRefresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({
+      runtime: auth.runtime,
+      logger: app.log,
+      offline: offlineModeEnabled(daemonEnvironment),
+    });
+    catalogRefresher.start();
+    auth.subscribe(() => { catalogRefresher.requestRefresh(); });
     const spawnTargets = config.spawnSessions
       ? new ProjectScopedSpawnTargetResolver({ projects: new ProjectService(new ProjectStore()), workspaces: new WorkspaceService() })
       : undefined;
@@ -79,7 +91,7 @@ await runSessionDaemonStartup({
       ...getPiWebRuntimeComponent("sessiond", SESSIOND_RUNTIME_CAPABILITIES),
       activeAgentProfile,
     });
-    return { eventHub, workspaceActivity, auth, sessions, terminals, unreadStore, activeAgentProfile, runtimeComponent };
+    return { eventHub, workspaceActivity, auth, sessions, terminals, unreadStore, activeAgentProfile, runtimeComponent, catalogRefresher };
   },
   registerRoutes({ eventHub, workspaceActivity, auth, sessions, terminals, runtimeComponent }) {
     registerWorkspaceActivityRoutes(app, workspaceActivity);
@@ -102,7 +114,7 @@ await runSessionDaemonStartup({
 
     app.get("/runtime", () => runtimeComponent);
   },
-  async listen({ auth, sessions, terminals, unreadStore }) {
+  async listen({ auth, sessions, terminals, unreadStore, catalogRefresher }) {
     let shuttingDown = false;
     async function shutdown(signal: NodeJS.Signals): Promise<void> {
       if (shuttingDown) return;
@@ -117,6 +129,7 @@ await runSessionDaemonStartup({
         }
       };
       await attempt("dispose terminals", () => { terminals.dispose(); });
+      await attempt("dispose catalog refresher", () => { catalogRefresher.dispose(); });
       await attempt("dispose auth", () => { auth.dispose(); });
       await attempt("dispose sessions", () => sessions.dispose());
       await attempt("flush session unread state", () => unreadStore.flush());
diff --git a/src/server/sessions/authService.test.ts b/src/server/sessions/authService.test.ts
index 8a07d0a..2cb00ce 100644
--- a/src/server/sessions/authService.test.ts
+++ b/src/server/sessions/authService.test.ts
@@ -362,7 +362,7 @@ describe("AuthService", () => {
 
   it("stores credentials in the configured agent directory", async () => {
     const agentDir = await tempAgentDir();
-    const runtime = await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir, false);
+    const runtime = await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir);
     const auth = await AuthService.create({ runtime });
 
     await auth.saveApiKey("anthropic", "sk-test");
@@ -470,6 +470,68 @@ describe("AuthService", () => {
   });
 });
 
+describe("createModelRuntimeForAgentDir", () => {
+  it("keeps runtime-owned refreshes local so request paths cannot stall", async () => {
+    // reloadConfig() is the request-path call site that regressed: it refreshes
+    // with allowNetwork = the construction-time network flag and no abort signal.
+    // The ambient PI_OFFLINE=1 stub has to go, or the runtime would be offline
+    // whether or not the helper forces it and this would assert nothing.
+    vi.stubEnv("PI_OFFLINE", undefined);
+    const agentDir = await tempAgentDir();
+    const runtime = await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir);
+    const refresh = vi.spyOn(runtime, "refresh");
+
+    await runtime.reloadConfig();
+
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledWith({ allowNetwork: false });
+  });
+
+  it("restores a previously set PI_OFFLINE after runtime creation", async () => {
+    // The file-level beforeEach stubs PI_OFFLINE=1.
+    const agentDir = await tempAgentDir();
+    await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir);
+    expect(process.env["PI_OFFLINE"]).toBe("1");
+  });
+
+  it("restores a previously unset PI_OFFLINE after runtime creation", async () => {
+    vi.unstubAllEnvs();
+    const previous = process.env["PI_OFFLINE"];
+    delete process.env["PI_OFFLINE"];
+    try {
+      const agentDir = await tempAgentDir();
+      const runtime = await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir);
+      const refresh = vi.spyOn(runtime, "refresh");
+
+      await runtime.reloadConfig();
+
+      expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledWith({ allowNetwork: false });
+      expect(process.env["PI_OFFLINE"]).toBeUndefined();
+    } finally {
+      if (previous !== undefined) process.env["PI_OFFLINE"] = previous;
+    }
+  });
+
+  it("restores PI_OFFLINE when creations overlap, because the env windows are serialized", async () => {
+    vi.unstubAllEnvs();
+    const previous = process.env["PI_OFFLINE"];
+    delete process.env["PI_OFFLINE"];
+    try {
+      const dirs = await Promise.all([tempAgentDir(), tempAgentDir(), tempAgentDir()]);
+      const runtimes = await Promise.all(dirs.map((dir) => createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(dir)));
+
+      // Interleaved save/restore pairs would leave PI_OFFLINE set process-wide.
+      expect(process.env["PI_OFFLINE"]).toBeUndefined();
+      for (const runtime of runtimes) {
+        const refresh = vi.spyOn(runtime, "refresh");
+        await runtime.reloadConfig();
+        expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledWith({ allowNetwork: false });
+      }
+    } finally {
+      if (previous !== undefined) process.env["PI_OFFLINE"] = previous;
+    }
+  });
+});
+
 async function createAuthService(seed: Record<string, Credential> = {}, logger?: AuthServiceLogger) {
   const credentials = new InMemoryCredentialStore();
   for (const [providerId, credential] of Object.entries(seed)) {
@@ -486,7 +548,7 @@ async function createFileBackedAuthService(seed: Record<string, Credential>) {
   const agentDir = await tempAgentDir();
   const authPath = join(agentDir, "auth.json");
   await writeFile(authPath, JSON.stringify(seed, null, 2));
-  const runtime = await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir, false);
+  const runtime = await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir);
   const auth = await AuthService.create({ runtime });
   const changes: AuthChange[] = [];
   auth.subscribe((change) => { changes.push(change); });
diff --git a/src/server/sessions/authService.ts b/src/server/sessions/authService.ts
index 5a237ff..81e726d 100644
--- a/src/server/sessions/authService.ts
+++ b/src/server/sessions/authService.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 import { join } from "node:path";
-import { ModelRuntime } from "@earendil-works/pi-coding-agent";
+import { ModelRuntime, type CreateModelRuntimeOptions } from "@earendil-works/pi-coding-agent";
 import type { AuthInteraction } from "@earendil-works/pi-ai";
 import type { AuthProvidersResponse, AuthType, OAuthFlowState } from "../../shared/apiTypes.js";
 import { getLoginProviderOptions, getLogoutProviderOptions } from "./authProviderOptions.js";
@@ -31,11 +31,62 @@ interface AuthChangeContext {
 
 const noopLogger: AuthServiceLogger = { error() { /* no-op */ } };
 
-export function createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir: string, allowModelNetwork?: boolean): Promise<ModelRuntime> {
-  return ModelRuntime.create({
+/**
+ * Serializes the `PI_OFFLINE` windows below, which is what keeps their
+ * save/restore pairs properly nested. Two overlapping calls would otherwise both
+ * capture the forced `"1"` and restore it, leaving the whole process offline
+ * permanently. Owned by this module only; nothing else may mutate it.
+ */
+let offlineRuntimeCreations: Promise<unknown> = Promise.resolve();
+
+/**
+ * Create the shared model runtime with runtime-owned network refreshes disabled.
+ *
+ * Upstream `ModelRuntime.reloadConfig()`, `login()`, and `logout()` always refresh
+ * with `allowNetwork: modelNetworkEnabled` and accept no abort signal. With the
+ * default (`PI_OFFLINE` unset) a single stalled provider-catalog fetch can block
+ * those call paths for minutes — and, because pi-web shares one runtime and pi
+ * coalesces per-provider refreshes, session creation joins the same stalled
+ * fetch. Forcing `PI_OFFLINE` during construction makes every runtime-driven
+ * refresh local-only; pi-web performs its own bounded catalog refreshes in the
+ * background instead (see modelCatalogRefresher.ts).
+ *
+ * `modelNetworkEnabled` is computed once from the environment inside
+ * `ModelRuntime.create()`, so the env var is the only lever upstream exposes.
+ * Calls are queued so their env windows never overlap.
+ */
+function createOfflineModelRuntime(options: CreateModelRuntimeOptions): Promise<ModelRuntime> {
+  const created = offlineRuntimeCreations.then(() => forceOfflineWhile(() => ModelRuntime.create(options)));
+  // A failed creation must not poison the queue; the caller still sees the rejection.
+  offlineRuntimeCreations = created.then(() => undefined, () => undefined);
+  return created;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Force `PI_OFFLINE` for the duration of `create`, then restore what was there.
+ *
+ * `process.env` is process-wide, so this window is a real global side effect:
+ * anything reading `PI_OFFLINE` while `create` awaits observes offline mode,
+ * including upstream's package manager, tools manager, and version check. That
+ * is acceptable because pi-web only builds runtimes during daemon startup and in
+ * tests, and the window is one `ModelRuntime.create()` call — but it is why
+ * callers must stay serialized rather than run concurrently.
+ */
+async function forceOfflineWhile<T>(create: () => Promise<T>): Promise<T> {
+  const previous = process.env["PI_OFFLINE"];
+  process.env["PI_OFFLINE"] = "1";
+  try {
+    return await create();
+  } finally {
+    if (previous === undefined) delete process.env["PI_OFFLINE"];
+    else process.env["PI_OFFLINE"] = previous;
+  }
+}
+
+export function createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(agentDir: string): Promise<ModelRuntime> {
+  return createOfflineModelRuntime({
     authPath: join(agentDir, "auth.json"),
     modelsPath: join(agentDir, "models.json"),
-    ...(allowModelNetwork === undefined ? {} : { allowModelNetwork }),
   });
 }
 
@@ -52,7 +103,7 @@ export class AuthService {
   }
 
   static async create(deps: AuthServiceDependencies = {}): Promise<AuthService> {
-    const runtime = deps.runtime ?? (deps.agentDir === undefined ? await ModelRuntime.create({}) : await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(deps.agentDir));
+    const runtime = deps.runtime ?? (deps.agentDir === undefined ? await createOfflineModelRuntime({}) : await createModelRuntimeForAgentDir(deps.agentDir));
     const logger = deps.logger ?? noopLogger;
     const authFlows = deps.authFlows ?? new OAuthLoginFlowService({ logger });
     return new AuthService(runtime, authFlows, logger);
diff --git a/src/server/sessions/modelCatalogRefresher.test.ts b/src/server/sessions/modelCatalogRefresher.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..85c95a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/sessions/modelCatalogRefresher.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,394 @@
+import { afterEach, beforeEach, describe, expect, it, vi } from "vitest";
+import { ModelCatalogRefresher } from "./modelCatalogRefresher.js";
+
+interface RefreshCall {
+  allowNetwork?: boolean;
+  force?: boolean;
+  signal?: AbortSignal;
+}
+
+interface RefreshResult {
+  aborted: boolean;
+  errors: Map<string, Error>;
+}
+
+const okResult = (): RefreshResult => ({ aborted: false, errors: new Map<string, Error>() });
+const abortedResult = (): RefreshResult => ({ aborted: true, errors: new Map<string, Error>() });
+
+function deferred<T>() {
+  let resolveValue: (value: T) => void = () => undefined;
+  const promise = new Promise<T>((resolve) => {
+    resolveValue = resolve;
+  });
+  return { promise, resolve: resolveValue };
+}
+
+function createRuntime() {
+  const calls: RefreshCall[] = [];
+  const refresh = vi.fn((options?: RefreshCall) => {
+    calls.push(options ?? {});
+    return Promise.resolve(okResult());
+  });
+  return { refresh, calls };
+}
+
+function createLogger() {
+  const info = vi.fn();
+  const warn = vi.fn();
+  const error = vi.fn();
+  return { logger: { info, warn, error }, info, warn, error };
+}
+
+/** Let a started refresh run to completion, including the finally-queue bookkeeping. */
+async function flushMicrotasks(rounds = 5): Promise<void> {
+  for (let index = 0; index < rounds; index++) await Promise.resolve();
+}
+
+describe("ModelCatalogRefresher", () => {
+  beforeEach(() => {
+    vi.useFakeTimers();
+  });
+
+  afterEach(() => {
+    vi.useRealTimers();
+  });
+
+  it("runs a bounded network refresh when one is requested", async () => {
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(runtime.refresh).toHaveBeenCalledOnce();
+    const call = runtime.calls.at(0);
+    expect(call?.allowNetwork).toBe(true);
+    expect(call?.signal).toBeInstanceOf(AbortSignal);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("forces auth-triggered refreshes past pi's freshness gate", async () => {
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(runtime.calls.at(0)?.force).toBe(true);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("leaves scheduled refreshes unforced so pi's freshness gate stays in charge", async () => {
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime, initialDelayMs: 1_000, intervalMs: 60_000 });
+    refresher.start();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(61_000);
+
+    expect(runtime.refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+    expect(runtime.calls.map((call) => call.force)).toEqual([false, false]);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("keeps a forced request forced when it is queued behind a scheduled run", async () => {
+    const gate = deferred<RefreshResult>();
+    const calls: RefreshCall[] = [];
+    const refresh = vi.fn((options?: RefreshCall) => {
+      calls.push(options ?? {});
+      return calls.length === 1 ? gate.promise : Promise.resolve(okResult());
+    });
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, initialDelayMs: 1_000, intervalMs: 60_000 });
+    refresher.start();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(1_000);
+    expect(calls.at(0)?.force).toBe(false);
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    gate.resolve(okResult());
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+    expect(calls.at(1)?.force).toBe(true);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("refreshes well within pi's four-hour freshness window", async () => {
+    const fourHoursMs = 4 * 60 * 60 * 1000;
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    // Defaults matter here: the bug this pins is a scheduled interval that lands
+    // just short of pi's TTL and therefore only fetches on every other tick.
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime });
+    refresher.start();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(fourHoursMs);
+
+    // Ticks are cheap because scheduled runs never force, so several land inside
+    // one TTL window and at least one is guaranteed to be past the gate.
+    expect(runtime.refresh.mock.calls.length).toBeGreaterThan(2);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("coalesces overlapping requests into a single follow-up run", async () => {
+    const gate = deferred<RefreshResult>();
+    const refresh = vi.fn()
+      .mockImplementationOnce(() => gate.promise)
+      .mockResolvedValue(okResult());
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh } });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledOnce();
+
+    gate.resolve(okResult());
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("refreshes after the initial delay and then on the interval", async () => {
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime, initialDelayMs: 1_000, intervalMs: 60_000 });
+    refresher.start();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(999);
+    expect(runtime.refresh).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(1);
+    expect(runtime.refresh).toHaveBeenCalledOnce();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(60_000);
+    expect(runtime.refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("stops scheduling refreshes after dispose", async () => {
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime, initialDelayMs: 1_000, intervalMs: 60_000 });
+    refresher.start();
+    refresher.dispose();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(120_000);
+    expect(runtime.refresh).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+
+  it("aborts the in-flight refresh when disposed", async () => {
+    const { logger, info, warn, error } = createLogger();
+    let observed: AbortSignal | undefined;
+    // Stand in for a provider fetch that only settles when its signal aborts,
+    // which is what makes an unaborted run delay daemon shutdown.
+    const refresh = vi.fn((options?: RefreshCall) => {
+      observed = options?.signal;
+      return new Promise<RefreshResult>((resolve) => {
+        options?.signal?.addEventListener("abort", () => { resolve(abortedResult()); });
+      });
+    });
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, logger });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+    expect(observed?.aborted).toBe(false);
+
+    refresher.dispose();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(observed?.aborted).toBe(true);
+    // A deliberate shutdown abort is expected, not a timeout or a fault.
+    expect(info).toHaveBeenCalledWith({}, "model catalog refresh aborted by dispose; keeping cached catalogs");
+    expect(warn).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(error).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+
+  it("does not report a refresh that rejects because dispose aborted it as a failure", async () => {
+    const { logger, info, warn, error } = createLogger();
+    const refresh = vi.fn((options?: RefreshCall) => new Promise<RefreshResult>((_resolve, reject) => {
+      options?.signal?.addEventListener("abort", () => { reject(new Error("This operation was aborted")); });
+    }));
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, logger });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+    refresher.dispose();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(info).toHaveBeenCalledWith({}, "model catalog refresh aborted by dispose; keeping cached catalogs");
+    expect(warn).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(error).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+
+  it("keeps the timers of the first start when start is called again", async () => {
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime, initialDelayMs: 1_000, intervalMs: 60_000 });
+
+    refresher.start();
+    refresher.start();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(61_000);
+
+    // A leaked second timer pair would double every scheduled refresh.
+    expect(runtime.refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+
+    refresher.dispose();
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(120_000);
+    expect(runtime.refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+  });
+
+  it("does not run a queued follow-up after dispose", async () => {
+    const gate = deferred<RefreshResult>();
+    const refresh = vi.fn().mockImplementation(() => gate.promise);
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh } });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    refresher.dispose();
+    gate.resolve(okResult());
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledOnce();
+  });
+
+  it("retries once after an aborted run and then waits for the schedule", async () => {
+    const { logger, info } = createLogger();
+    const refresh = vi.fn()
+      .mockResolvedValueOnce(abortedResult())
+      .mockResolvedValueOnce(abortedResult())
+      .mockResolvedValue(okResult());
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, logger, retryDelayMs: 30_000, intervalMs: 3_600_000 });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledOnce();
+    expect(info).toHaveBeenCalledWith({ retryDelayMs: 30_000, mode: "forced" }, "scheduling one model catalog refresh retry");
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(30_000);
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+
+    // The retry also failed, but a retry never earns another retry.
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(300_000);
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("retries once after a run reports provider errors", async () => {
+    const errors = new Map<string, Error>([["openrouter", new Error("boom")]]);
+    const refresh = vi.fn()
+      .mockResolvedValueOnce({ aborted: false, errors })
+      .mockResolvedValue(okResult());
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, retryDelayMs: 30_000 });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(30_000);
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("does not schedule a retry after a successful run", async () => {
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime, retryDelayMs: 30_000, intervalMs: 3_600_000 });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(300_000);
+
+    expect(runtime.refresh).toHaveBeenCalledOnce();
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("drops a pending retry when dispose happens first", async () => {
+    const refresh = vi.fn()
+      .mockResolvedValueOnce(abortedResult())
+      .mockResolvedValue(okResult());
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, retryDelayMs: 30_000 });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+    refresher.dispose();
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(300_000);
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledOnce();
+  });
+
+  it("lets a new request supersede a pending retry instead of running both", async () => {
+    const refresh = vi.fn()
+      .mockResolvedValueOnce(abortedResult())
+      .mockResolvedValue(okResult());
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, retryDelayMs: 30_000 });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(300_000);
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(2);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("never touches the network when offline mode is enabled", async () => {
+    const runtime = createRuntime();
+    const { logger, info } = createLogger();
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime, logger, offline: true, initialDelayMs: 1_000, intervalMs: 60_000 });
+
+    refresher.start();
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(300_000);
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(runtime.refresh).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+    expect(info).toHaveBeenCalledWith({}, "offline mode is enabled; skipping background model catalog refreshes");
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("warns and keeps going when a refresh is aborted by its timeout", async () => {
+    const { logger, warn, error } = createLogger();
+    const refresh = vi.fn(() => Promise.resolve({ aborted: true, errors: new Map<string, Error>() }));
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, logger });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(warn).toHaveBeenCalledOnce();
+    expect(error).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("warns with provider details when a refresh reports provider errors", async () => {
+    const { logger, warn } = createLogger();
+    const errors = new Map<string, Error>([["openrouter", new Error("boom")]]);
+    const refresh = vi.fn(() => Promise.resolve({ aborted: false, errors }));
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, logger });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(warn).toHaveBeenCalledWith(
+      { providers: ["openrouter: boom"] },
+      "model catalog refresh failed for some providers; keeping cached catalogs",
+    );
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+
+  it("logs and swallows a rejecting refresh so timers stay alive", async () => {
+    const { logger, error } = createLogger();
+    const failure = new Error("refresh exploded");
+    const refresh = vi.fn()
+      .mockRejectedValueOnce(failure)
+      .mockResolvedValue(okResult());
+    const refresher = new ModelCatalogRefresher({ runtime: { refresh }, logger, initialDelayMs: 1_000, intervalMs: 60_000 });
+
+    refresher.requestRefresh();
+    await flushMicrotasks();
+
+    expect(error).toHaveBeenCalledWith({ err: failure }, "model catalog refresh failed; keeping cached catalogs");
+
+    refresher.start();
+    await vi.advanceTimersByTimeAsync(61_000);
+    expect(refresh).toHaveBeenCalledTimes(3);
+    refresher.dispose();
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/server/sessions/modelCatalogRefresher.ts b/src/server/sessions/modelCatalogRefresher.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3d9f29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/server/sessions/modelCatalogRefresher.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,231 @@
+import type { ModelRuntime } from "@earendil-works/pi-coding-agent";
+
+/**
+ * Tick hourly and let pi decide when a fetch is actually due: pi treats stored
+ * catalogs as fresh for REMOTE_CATALOG_REFRESH_INTERVAL_MS (4h) and skips the
+ * network entirely on an unforced refresh inside that window. Ticking at
+ * exactly 4h would land a few seconds short of the window every time, because
+ * pi stamps `checkedAt` only after a fetch completes, so every other tick would
+ * be skipped and the real cadence would be ~8h. A shorter interval removes that
+ * off-by-one-latency skip, tolerates clock skew, and costs nothing when the
+ * cache is fresh, because scheduled runs never set `force`.
+ */
+const DEFAULT_INTERVAL_MS = 60 * 60 * 1000;
+/** Give the daemon a moment to finish startup before the first network refresh. */
+const DEFAULT_INITIAL_DELAY_MS = 15_000;
+/**
+ * Bound every catalog refresh so a stalled provider fetch cannot run forever.
+ * One run covers every refreshable provider under a single signal, so this is a
+ * whole-cycle budget for a background job, not pi's 15s startup budget.
+ */
+const DEFAULT_TIMEOUT_MS = 60_000;
+/**
+ * Wait this long before the single follow-up attempt that a timed-out or failed
+ * run earns, so a transient network problem does not cost a whole interval.
+ */
+const DEFAULT_RETRY_DELAY_MS = 5 * 60 * 1000;
+
+/**
+ * Scheduled runs defer to pi's freshness gate; forced runs bypass it because
+ * the caller knows the cached catalog is wrong (for example after a login).
+ */
+type RefreshMode = "scheduled" | "forced";
+
+/** A queued follow-up must keep the strongest mode requested while a run was in flight. */
+const strongestMode = (left: RefreshMode | undefined, right: RefreshMode): RefreshMode =>
+  left === "forced" || right === "forced" ? "forced" : "scheduled";
+
+/** Whether a run finished with a complete picture, or earned a retry. */
+type RunOutcome = "complete" | "incomplete";
+
+/** Minimal structured-logging seam for refresh lifecycle and non-fatal failures. */
+export interface ModelCatalogRefresherLogger {
+  info(details: Record<string, unknown>, message: string): void;
+  warn(details: Record<string, unknown>, message: string): void;
+  error(details: Record<string, unknown>, message: string): void;
+}
+
+export interface ModelCatalogRefresherOptions {
+  runtime: Pick<ModelRuntime, "refresh">;
+  logger?: ModelCatalogRefresherLogger;
+  /**
+   * When true the operator asked for offline behavior, so no network refresh is
+   * ever attempted. Injected from the daemon environment instead of read from
+   * `process.env` here, so the decision stays explicit and testable.
+   */
+  offline?: boolean;
+  intervalMs?: number;
+  initialDelayMs?: number;
+  timeoutMs?: number;
+  retryDelayMs?: number;
+}
+
+const noopLogger: ModelCatalogRefresherLogger = {
+  info() { /* no-op */ },
+  warn() { /* no-op */ },
+  error() { /* no-op */ },
+};
+
+/**
+ * Refreshes provider model catalogs over the network on a background schedule.
+ *
+ * The shared ModelRuntime is constructed offline (see authService.ts), so its
+ * own refreshes never touch the network and stay fast on request paths. This
+ * refresher is the single place that deliberately performs network refreshes —
+ * bounded by an abort timeout, serialized through one in-flight run, stopped by
+ * `dispose()` even mid-flight, and off any request path. `requestRefresh()`
+ * additionally asks for a prompt forced refresh after events that change what
+ * should be listed, such as provider logins, where the cached catalog is known
+ * to be wrong.
+ *
+ * When the operator asked for offline behavior (`PI_OFFLINE` / `PI_WEB_OFFLINE`),
+ * the refresher performs no network I/O at all and the cached catalogs in
+ * models-store.json are used as they are.
+ */
+export class ModelCatalogRefresher {
+  private readonly runtime: Pick<ModelRuntime, "refresh">;
+  private readonly logger: ModelCatalogRefresherLogger;
+  private readonly offline: boolean;
+  private readonly intervalMs: number;
+  private readonly initialDelayMs: number;
+  private readonly timeoutMs: number;
+  private readonly retryDelayMs: number;
+  private initialTimer?: NodeJS.Timeout;
+  private intervalTimer?: NodeJS.Timeout;
+  private retryTimer: NodeJS.Timeout | undefined;
+  private inflight: Promise<void> | undefined;
+  private queuedMode: RefreshMode | undefined;
+  private started = false;
+  private disposed = false;
+  /**
+   * Aborted by `dispose()` so a refresh already in flight stops with the
+   * refresher instead of holding its fetch open for the rest of the timeout
+   * budget, which would delay daemon shutdown.
+   */
+  private readonly lifetime = new AbortController();
+
+  constructor(options: ModelCatalogRefresherOptions) {
+    this.runtime = options.runtime;
+    this.logger = options.logger ?? noopLogger;
+    this.offline = options.offline ?? false;
+    this.intervalMs = options.intervalMs ?? DEFAULT_INTERVAL_MS;
+    this.initialDelayMs = options.initialDelayMs ?? DEFAULT_INITIAL_DELAY_MS;
+    this.timeoutMs = options.timeoutMs ?? DEFAULT_TIMEOUT_MS;
+    this.retryDelayMs = options.retryDelayMs ?? DEFAULT_RETRY_DELAY_MS;
+  }
+
+  /** Idempotent: a second call keeps the timers the first call installed. */
+  start(): void {
+    if (this.disposed || this.started) return;
+    this.started = true;
+    if (this.offline) {
+      this.logger.info({}, "offline mode is enabled; skipping background model catalog refreshes");
+      return;
+    }
+    this.initialTimer = setTimeout(() => { this.queueRefresh("scheduled"); }, this.initialDelayMs);
+    this.initialTimer.unref();
+    this.intervalTimer = setInterval(() => { this.queueRefresh("scheduled"); }, this.intervalMs);
+    this.intervalTimer.unref();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Ask for an immediate refresh that bypasses pi's freshness gate, for callers
+   * that know the cached catalog is stale (auth changes). Coalesces with
+   * concurrent and overlapping requests, and is a no-op in offline mode so auth
+   * changes never trigger network I/O either.
+   */
+  requestRefresh(): void {
+    this.queueRefresh("forced");
+  }
+
+  /** Terminal: stops the schedule, drops any queued follow-up, and aborts an in-flight run. */
+  dispose(): void {
+    this.disposed = true;
+    if (this.initialTimer !== undefined) clearTimeout(this.initialTimer);
+    if (this.intervalTimer !== undefined) clearInterval(this.intervalTimer);
+    this.clearRetryTimer();
+    this.lifetime.abort();
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Single entry point for every refresh trigger. Only one run is ever in
+   * flight; overlapping requests collapse into one follow-up that keeps the
+   * strongest mode asked for, so a forced request is never downgraded.
+   */
+  private queueRefresh(mode: RefreshMode, isRetry = false): void {
+    if (this.disposed || this.offline) return;
+    // Any fresh trigger supersedes a pending retry, which keeps retries from
+    // stacking up behind normal activity.
+    if (!isRetry) this.clearRetryTimer();
+    if (this.inflight !== undefined) {
+      this.queuedMode = strongestMode(this.queuedMode, mode);
+      return;
+    }
+    // runCycle() reports every failure through the logger and never rejects.
+    this.inflight = this.runCycle(mode, isRetry);
+  }
+
+  /** One run plus the follow-up it leads to: a queued request, a single retry, or nothing. */
+  private async runCycle(mode: RefreshMode, isRetry: boolean): Promise<void> {
+    const outcome = await this.run(mode);
+    this.inflight = undefined;
+    const queued = this.queuedMode;
+    this.queuedMode = undefined;
+    if (queued !== undefined) {
+      // A request that arrived during the run replaces any retry this run would
+      // have earned; it runs now instead.
+      this.queueRefresh(queued);
+      return;
+    }
+    // Only a first attempt earns a retry, so a failing provider can never turn
+    // into a retry loop.
+    if (outcome === "incomplete" && !isRetry) this.scheduleRetry(mode);
+  }
+
+  private scheduleRetry(mode: RefreshMode): void {
+    if (this.disposed) return;
+    this.logger.info({ retryDelayMs: this.retryDelayMs, mode }, "scheduling one model catalog refresh retry");
+    this.retryTimer = setTimeout(() => {
+      this.retryTimer = undefined;
+      this.queueRefresh(mode, true);
+    }, this.retryDelayMs);
+    this.retryTimer.unref();
+  }
+
+  private clearRetryTimer(): void {
+    if (this.retryTimer === undefined) return;
+    clearTimeout(this.retryTimer);
+    this.retryTimer = undefined;
+  }
+
+  private async run(mode: RefreshMode): Promise<RunOutcome> {
+    try {
+      const result = await this.runtime.refresh({
+        allowNetwork: true,
+        force: mode === "forced",
+        signal: AbortSignal.any([this.lifetime.signal, AbortSignal.timeout(this.timeoutMs)]),
+      });
+      if (result.aborted && this.lifetime.signal.aborted) {
+        this.logStoppedByDispose();
+        return "incomplete";
+      }
+      if (result.aborted) {
+        this.logger.warn({ timeoutMs: this.timeoutMs }, "model catalog refresh timed out; keeping cached catalogs");
+      }
+      if (result.errors.size > 0) {
+        const providers = [...result.errors.entries()].map(([providerId, error]) => `${providerId}: ${error.message}`);
+        this.logger.warn({ providers }, "model catalog refresh failed for some providers; keeping cached catalogs");
+      }
+      return result.aborted || result.errors.size > 0 ? "incomplete" : "complete";
+    } catch (error: unknown) {
+      if (this.lifetime.signal.aborted) this.logStoppedByDispose();
+      else this.logger.error({ err: error }, "model catalog refresh failed; keeping cached catalogs");
+      return "incomplete";
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** A shutdown abort is expected, so it must not be reported as a timeout or a fault. */
+  private logStoppedByDispose(): void {
+    this.logger.info({}, "model catalog refresh aborted by dispose; keeping cached catalogs");
+  }
+}